Who led the campaign against the Polovtsy. Kievan Rus and the Cumans

St. Petersburg State University of Telecommunications named after. Prof. Bonch-Bruevich

Abstract on the subject " Military history" on the topic of:

"Military campaigns of Russian princes against the Polovtsians."

Completed by a student of the IKTV-34 group

Tkachuk Anton

Saint Petersburg

The departure of the Pechenegs from the Northern Black Sea region caused a void that sooner or later someone had to fill. From the second half of the 11th century, the Polovtsians became the new masters of the steppes. From that time on, a titanic Russian-Polovtsian struggle unfolded, which was waged on the broadest front from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians. Unprecedented in its scale, it lasted for a century and a half and had a significant impact on the fate of the Old Russian state.

Like the Pechenegs, the Polovtsians did not set the goal of seizing Russian territories, but limited themselves to robberies and deportation. And the population ratio Ancient Rus' and the steppe nomads were far from in favor of the latter: according to various estimates, approximately 5.5 million people lived on the territory of the Old Russian state, while the Polovtsians numbered several hundred thousand.

The Russians had to fight the Polovtsy under the new historical conditions of the collapse of a single state. Now, squads of individual principalities usually participated in the war with nomads. The boyars were free to choose their place of service and could move to another prince at any time. Therefore, their troops were not particularly reliable. There was no unity of command and weapons. Thus, the military successes of the Polovtsians were directly related to internal political changes in the Old Russian state. Over the course of a century and a half, nomads made about 50 major raids on Russian lands. Sometimes the Polovtsians became allies of princes engaged in internecine struggle.

The Russian-Polovtsian wars can be divided into three stages. The first covers the second half of the 11th century, the second is associated with the activities of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the third falls on the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries.

Wars with the Cumans, first stage (second half of the 11th century)

The first attack of the Polovtsians on Russian soil dates back to 1061, when they defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Seven years later, a new raid was made. The joint forces of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Izyaslav and his brothers Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod of Pereyaslav came out to meet him.

Battle of the Alta River (1068). The opponents met in September on the banks of the Alta River. The battle took place at night. The Polovtsians turned out to be more successful and defeated the Russians, who fled from the battlefield. The consequence of this defeat was a rebellion in Kyiv, as a result of which Izyaslav fled to Poland. The Polovtsian invasion was stopped by Prince Svyatoslav, who with a small retinue boldly attacked a large army of nomads near Snovsk and won a decisive victory over them. Until the 90s of the 11th century, chronicles are silent about major raids, but the “small war” continued periodically.

Battle of Stugna (1093). The onslaught of the Polovtsians especially intensified in the 90s of the 11th century. In 1092, nomads captured three cities: Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and also destroyed many villages on both sides of the Dnieper. The Polovtsian khans Bonyak and Tugorkan became famous in the raids of the 90s. In 1093, Polovtsian troops besieged the city of Torchesk. The Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich came out to meet them with a squad of 800 soldiers. Along the way, he united with the troops of princes Rostislav and Vladimir Vsevolodovich. But having joined forces, the princes were unable to develop joint tactics. Svyatopolk self-confidently rushed into battle. The rest, citing a lack of strength, offered to enter into negotiations with the Polovtsians. In the end, the passionate Svyatopolk, wanting victory, won over the majority to his side. May 24 Russian army crossed the Stugna River and was attacked by superior forces of the Polovtsians. Unable to withstand the blow, the Russians fled to the river. Many died in the stormy waters from the rains (including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich). After this victory, the Polovtsians captured Torchesk. To stop their invasion, the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk was forced to pay them tribute and marry the daughter of the Polovtsian khan Tugorkan.

Battle of Trubezh (1096). Svyatopolk's marriage to a Polovtsian princess briefly curbed the appetites of her relatives, and two years after the Battle of Stugna, the raids resumed with renewed vigor. Moreover, this time the southern princes were unable to agree on joint actions at all, since the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavich avoided the fight and preferred to conclude not only peace, but also an alliance with the Polovtsians. With the help of the Polovtsians, he expelled Prince Vladimir Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, who in the summer of 1095 had to single-handedly repel the raids of nomads. The next year, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich expelled Oleg from Chernigov and besieged his army in Starodub. The Polovtsians immediately took advantage of this discord and moved towards Rus' on both sides of the Dnieper. Bonyak appeared in the vicinity of Kyiv, and the princes Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl.

Then Vladimir and Svyatopolk quickly moved to defend their borders. Not finding Bonyak near Kyiv, they crossed the Dnieper and, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. On July 19, 1096, the Russians quickly forded the Trubezh River and attacked Tugorkan’s army. Not having time to line up for battle, it suffered a crushing defeat. During the persecution, many Polovtsian soldiers were killed, including Khan Tugorkan (father-in-law of Svyatopolk) along with his son and other noble military leaders.

Meanwhile, Bonyak, having learned about the departure of the princes for the Dnieper, almost captured Kyiv in an unexpected raid. The Polovtsians plundered and burned the Pechersky Monastery. However, having learned about the approach of the regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir, the Polovtsian khan quickly left with his army in the steppe. After successfully repelling this raid, the Torci and other border steppe tribes began to join the Russians. The victory on the banks of Trubezh was of great importance in the rise of the military star Vladimir Monomakh, who became a recognized leader in the fight against the Polovtsian danger.

Vlad Grinkevich, economic commentator for RIA Novosti.

Exactly 825 years ago, the troops of Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich and his brother Vsevolod set out on a campaign against the Polovtsian Prince Konchak. The unsuccessful campaign of the brothers was not particularly significant from a military-political point of view, and could have remained an ordinary episode of numerous Russian-Polovtsian wars. But the name of Igor was immortalized by an unknown author, who described the prince’s campaign in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

Polovtsian steppe

At the beginning of the 11th century, Turkic tribes, called Polovtsians in Russian sources (they did not have a single self-name), invaded the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pechenegs, exhausted by a long confrontation with Russia and Byzantium. Soon the new people spread throughout the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh, and this territory began to be called the Polovtsian steppe.

In the middle of the 11th century, the Polovtsians appeared at the Russian borders. From this moment the history of the Russian-Polovtsian wars begins, stretching over a century and a half. The balance of power between Rus' and the steppe in the 11th century was clearly not in favor of the latter. The population of the Russian state exceeded 5 million people. What forces did the enemy have? Historians talk about several hundred thousand nomads. And these hundreds of thousands were scattered throughout the Great Steppe. Contrary to popular belief, the concentration of nomads in a limited area is very problematic.

The economy of nomadic peoples was only partially reproducing, and largely depended on finished products of nature - pastures and water sources. In modern horse breeding, it is believed that one horse requires an average of 1 hectare of pasture. It is not difficult to calculate that the long-term concentration in a limited territory of even several thousand nomads (each had several horses at his disposal, not counting other livestock) was a very difficult matter. Things were not going well with military technology either.

Metallurgy and metalworking have never been the strengths of nomads, because to process metals you need to master the technology of burning charcoal, building refractory furnaces, and have fairly developed soil science. All this has little to do with the nomadic way of life. It is no coincidence that even in the 18th century, the peoples of nomadic states, for example, the Dzungars, exchanged not only iron but also copper products with the Chinese and Russians.

However, several thousand, and sometimes several hundred, albeit poorly armed, but battle-hardened steppe inhabitants were enough to carry out lightning raids and dashing robberies, from which the weakly protected village settlements of the southern Russian principalities suffered.

It quickly became clear that the nomads were unable to resist a numerically superior and, most importantly, better equipped enemy. On November 1, 1068, the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, with only three thousand soldiers on the Snova River, defeated a twelve thousand Polovtsian army and captured Khan Shurkan. Subsequently, Russian troops repeatedly inflicted crushing defeats on the steppes, capturing or destroying their leaders.

Politics is dirtier than war

There is a saying - its authorship is attributed to various famous military leaders: “a fortress is strong not by its walls, but by the firmness of its defenders.” World history Quite clearly indicates that the nomads managed to capture sedentary states only when they were in a state of decline, or when the aggressors found support in the enemy camp.

From the middle of the 11th century, Rus' entered a period of fragmentation and civil strife. The Russian princes at war with each other were not averse to resorting to the help of the Polovtsian hordes to settle scores with political rivals. The central government became a pioneer in this not very noble cause: in the winter of 1076, Vladimir Monomakh hired nomads for a campaign against Vseslav of Polotsk. Monomakh's example turned out to be contagious, and the Russian princes willingly used Polovtsian detachments to ruin the estates of their competitors. The Polovtsians themselves benefited most from this; they became so strong that they began to pose a real threat to the entire Russian state. Only after this did the contradictions between the princes fade into the background.

In 1097, the Lyubechsky Congress of Princes decided: “let everyone keep his own patrimony.” Russian state was legally divided into appanages, but this did not prevent the appanage princes from joining forces to strike a blow at the common enemy. At the beginning of the 1100s, Vladimir Monomakh began a large-scale campaign against the nomads, which lasted more than 10 years and ended with the almost complete destruction of the Polovtsian state. The Polovtsians were forced out of the Great Steppe into the foothills of the Caucasus.

Who knows, maybe this is where the history of the people called the Polovtsians would have ended. But after the death of Monomakh, the warring princes again needed the services of the nomads. Revered as the founder of Moscow, Prince Yuri Dolgoruky leads the Polovtsian hordes to the walls of Kyiv five times. Others followed his example. History repeated itself: brought and armed by the Russian princes, the nomadic tribes became so strong that they began to pose a threat to the state.

Fate's grin

Once again, leaving behind their differences, the princes united to jointly push back their enemy allies into the steppe. In 1183, the allied army led by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich defeated the Polovtsian army, capturing Khan Kobyak. In the spring of 1185, Khan Konchak was defeated. Svyatoslav went to the Chernigov lands to gather an army for the summer campaign, but the ambitious Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor and his brother, the Chernigov prince Vsevolod, wanted military glory, and therefore at the end of April they began a new separate campaign against Konchak. This time, military luck was on the side of the nomads. For the whole day, the brothers' squads held back the pressure of a numerically superior enemy. “Ardent Tour” Vsevolod single-handedly fought with a whole detachment of enemies. But the bravery of the Russians was in vain: the princely troops were defeated, the wounded Igor and his son Vladimir were captured. However, having escaped from captivity, Igor took revenge on his offenders by carrying out a series of victorious campaigns against the Polovtsian khans.

The tragedy of the Russian-Polovtsian wars lies elsewhere. After 1185, the Polovtsians found themselves weakened and no longer dared to take independent action against Rus'. However, the steppe people regularly invaded Russian lands as mercenary troops of Russian princes. And soon the Polovtsians will have a new master: they first became prey, and soon the main striking force of the Tatar-Mongol army. And again, Rus' will have to pay dearly for the ambitions of its rulers, who rely on foreigners in the name of selfish goals.

The appanage prince Igor, who heads the Novgorod-Seversk principality, a brave warrior, in 1185 made a campaign against the Polovtsians. Khan Konchak surrounded his regiments on the banks of the Kayala River and defeated them. The commander was captured, but managed to escape. About Igor's campaign against the Polovtsians we're talking about in outstanding secular literary work XII century "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The main disaster of Rus' was its weakness. “The Word...” supplements the chronicles with important details. From it we learn what happened in the south of Rus' “when the plowmen rarely shouted to each other, but the crows often cawed, dividing the corpses.” The author of the work describes weapons, troop movements, and battle tactics.

Dangerous enemies of the Russian principalities - the Polovtsians

IN XII century the most dangerous enemies Old Russian lands become Polovtsians. This nomadic people dominated steppe zone, valleys of the Dnieper and Don rivers. This period was marked by constant attacks by nomads led by the energetic Khan Konchak. Russian chronicles call him “the accursed and godless destroyer.”
Wars were a frequent occurrence. Military campaigns were not only a way to expand their territory, but to increase their authority and glory.
Prince Igor was 35 years old during the military campaign. He previously maintained friendly relations with Khan Konchak and used the Polovtsians in internecine wars with neighboring princes. In 1180, the prince and the Polovtsian khan together undertook a campaign against Kyiv, which ended in failure. In 1183, Igor began to fight the Polovtsian Khan and carried out independent campaigns against the nomads. In the mentioned literary work, a brave and courageous prince appears before the readers, but he is reckless and short-sighted, cares more about his glory and honor than about his homeland.
A year before the famous tragic campaign, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav, together with the military forces of other princes, defeated the Polovtsian army. It seemed that the danger had receded. Igor was unable to join the troops of the Kyiv prince, since the spring ice prevented his cavalry from arriving on time.

Start of the hike

The beginning of the campaign dates back to the spring of 1185; the princes took part in it: Vsevolod of Kursk (Igor’s brother), Olgovich Rylsky (nephew), Vladimir Putivlsky (son). The Chernigov ruler, Yaroslav, sent a detachment of Kuevs (semi-nomadic peoples living on the southern borders of the Chernigov principality), headed by the boyar Olstin Oleksich. Near the Russian borders, Russian soldiers saw an eclipse of the sun. But such a warning sign did not frighten the prince; he continued to move forward. The soldiers sent on reconnaissance (“to catch the tongue”) reported a large number of Polovtsians and that the enemy was preparing for battle. The scouts told the princes that they needed to hurry to attack the enemy or return home. Igor was sure that returning home would be a shame worse than death.
In May, a bloody battle with the Polovtsy began, ending with the defeat of Prince Igor’s army. In this battle, as shown historical sources, all known tribal groups of the Cumans took part. The commander himself and other princes were captured, a small group of soldiers managed to break through the encirclement, the rest died on the battlefield. Igor was able to escape from captivity. But his son remained in the hands of the Polovtsians. Vladimir had to marry Konchak’s daughter. He later returns from captivity in the same way.

3 day battle

On the first day of the clash with the Polovtsians, Igor managed to win. At lunchtime, on Friday, the Russian squad overtook the enemy. The nomads abandoned their tents and gathered on the opposite bank of the Syurliy River. The Russians had six regiments deployed: in the center was Igor’s regiment, on the right was Prince Vselovod, on the left was the tribesman Svyatoslav, these were the main forces. In front of them was their son Vladimir with his soldiers and the Chernigov Regiment, consisting of kuoi. The sixth regiment, standing in front, was a combined regiment; it included archers sent from all five detachments.
The prince called his army to battle. the warriors were protected by iron chain mail, red shields, and stood under their banners that fluttered in the wind. when they approached Syurliya, Polovtsian archers came out to meet them, fired their arrows at the Russians and began to flee. Further from the river stood the main forces of the Polovtsians, they fled. Svyatoslav and Vladimir with their soldiers and archers chased the horde, Igor and his brother moved slowly, without disbanding their regiments. A large amount of booty was captured in the enemy camp: gold, silk fabrics, various clothes, and girls were captured.
Meanwhile, the Polovtsians managed to pull their hordes to the battlefield.
On Saturday at dawn, the offensive of a huge number of Polovtsian regiments began, and Russian soldiers were surrounded. The princes decided to break out of the encirclement. In order not to leave the enemies with foot soldiers, the warriors dismounted from their horses and began to retreat, fighting with the enemies. Vsevolod showed particular courage. During the battle, Prince Igor received a wound in his left arm. In the May heat, the warriors found themselves cut off from water, and both people and horses had to suffer from thirst.
The battle continued throughout the whole day, many Russian soldiers were killed and wounded. On Sunday the Kowis began to leave the battlefield. Igor rushed after them, trying to stop them, but he failed to do so. On the way back, the prince is captured. The best warriors remained to stand to the death; Prince Vsevolod set an example for the soldiers with his courage. Igor was captured, he watched Vsevolod defend himself. It was hard for him to see his brother's death.
This campaign, which was led by four princes, the eldest ruler was 35 years old, made a great impression in the Russian lands.
After the victory over Igor, the Polovtsians devastated the Russian lands. The princes at this time were busy with civil strife. The nomads advanced in two directions: to Pereyaslav and along the coast of the Seim. In Pereyaslav, Vladimir Glebovich led the defense. Prince of Kyiv sent help, the Polovtsy decided not to wait for a clash, they left Russian territory, burning the city of Rimov.
The defeat of Prince Igor showed that the principality alone was unable to overcome the nomads. The reasons for the failures should be sought in the lack of unity of forces of the Russian principalities. The unsuccessful battle with the Polovtsy left the borders of Rus' with the steppe open, allowing enemies to attack not only the border territories, but to invade deep into the Kyiv state. The author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” passionately appeals to the Russian princes to unite, which remained relevant for a long time even after 1185.

Polovtsy (11-13th centuries) are a nomadic people of Turkic origin, who became one of the main serious political opponents of the princes of Ancient Rus'.

At the beginning of the 11th century. The Polovtsians moved out from the Volga region, where they had lived before, towards the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pecheneg and Torque tribes along the way. After crossing the Dnieper, they reached the lower reaches of the Danube, occupying vast territories of the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh. During the same period, the steppes occupied by the Polovtsians began to be called the Polovtsian steppes (in Russian chronicles) and Dasht-i-Kypchak (in the chronicles of other peoples).

Name of the people

The people also have the names “Kipchaks” and “Cumans”. Each term has its own meaning and appeared under special conditions. Thus, the name “Polovtsy”, generally accepted on the territory of Ancient Rus', came from the word “polos”, which means “yellow”, and came into use due to the fact that the early representatives of this people had blond (“yellow”) hair.

The concept of “Kipchak” was first used after a serious internecine war in the 7th century. among the Turkic tribes, when the losing nobility began to call itself “Kipchak” (“ill-fated”). The Polovtsians were called “Cumans” in Byzantine and Western European chronicles.

History of the people

The Polovtsy were an independent people for several centuries, but by the middle of the 13th century. became part of the Golden Horde and assimilated the Tatar-Mongol conquerors, passing on to them part of their culture and their language. Later, on the basis of the Kypchan language (spoken by the Polovtsians), Tatar, Kazakh, Kumyk and many other languages ​​were formed.

The Polovtsians led a life typical of many nomadic peoples. Their main occupation remained cattle breeding. In addition, they were engaged in trade. A little later, the Polovtsians changed their nomadic lifestyle to a more sedentary one; certain parts of the tribe were assigned certain plots of land where people could run their own households.

The Polovtsians were pagans, professed Tangerianism (worship of Tengri Khan, the eternal sunshine of the sky), and worshiped animals (in particular, the wolf was, in the understanding of the Polovtsians, their totem ancestor). In the tribes there lived shamans who performed various rituals of worshiping nature and the earth.

Kievan Rus and the Cumans

The Polovtsians are very often mentioned in ancient Russian chronicles, and this is primarily due to their difficult relations with the Russians. Starting from 1061 and until 1210, the Cuman tribes constantly committed cruel acts, plundered villages and tried to seize local territories. In addition to many small raids, one can count about 46 major Cuman raids on Kievan Rus.

First major battle between the Polovtsians and the Russians took place on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, when the Polovtsian tribe raided Russian territories, burned several fields and plundered the villages located there. The Polovtsians quite often managed to defeat the Russian army. So, in 1068 they defeated the Russian army of the Yaroslavichs, and in 1078, during the next battle with the Polovtsian tribes, Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich died.

The troops of Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh (who later led the all-Russian campaigns of Rus' against the Polovtsians) and Rostislav during the battle in 1093 also fell at the hands of these nomads. In 1094, the Polovtsians went so far as to force Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. However, the Russian princes constantly organized retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians, which sometimes ended quite successfully. In 1096, the Cumans suffered their first defeat in the fight against Kievan Rus. In 1103, they were again defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Svyatopolk and Vladimir and were forced to leave the previously captured territories and go into service in the Caucasus to the local king.

The Polovtsians were finally defeated in 1111 by Vladimir Monomakh and a Russian army of thousands, which launched a crusade against their longtime opponents and invaders of Russian territories. To avoid final ruin, the Polovtsian tribes were forced to go back across the Danube and into Georgia (the tribe was divided). However, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the Polovtsians were able to return again and began to repeat their earlier raids, but very quickly went over to the side of the Russian princes fighting among themselves and began to take part in permanent battles on the territory of Rus', supporting one or another prince. Participated in raids on Kyiv.

Another major campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsy, which was reported in the chronicles, took place in 1185. famous work“The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” this event is called the massacre with the Polovtsians. Unfortunately, Igor's campaign was unsuccessful. He failed to defeat the Polovtsy, but this battle went down in the chronicles. Some time after this event, the raids began to fade away, the Cumans split up, some of them converted to Christianity and mixed with the local population.

The end of the Cuman tribe

The once strong tribe, which caused a lot of inconvenience to the Russian princes, ceased to exist as an independent and independent people around the middle of the 13th century. The campaigns of the Tatar-Mongol Khan Batu led to the fact that the Cumans actually became part of the Golden Horde and (although they did not lose their culture, but, on the contrary, passed it on) ceased to be independent.

The Polovtsians belonged to the nomadic tribes. According to various sources, they also had other names: Kipchaks and Komans. The Polovtsian people belonged to the Turkic-speaking tribes. At the beginning of the 11th century, they expelled the Pechenegs and Torques from the Black Sea steppes. Then they headed to the Dnieper, and upon reaching the Danube they became the owners of the steppe, which became known as the Polovtsian steppe. The religion of the Polovtsians was Tengriism. This religion is based on the cult of Tengri Khan (the eternal sunshine of the sky).

The daily life of the Polovtsians was practically no different from other tribal peoples. Their main occupation was cattle breeding. By the end of the 11th century, the type of Polovtsian nomadism changed from camp to more modern. Each individual part of the tribe was assigned plots of land for pastures.

Kievan Rus and the Cumans

Starting from 1061 and up to 1210, the Polovtsians made constant raids on Russian lands. The struggle between Rus' and the Polovtsians lasted quite a long time. There were about 46 major raids on Rus', and this does not take into account smaller ones.

The first battle of Rus' with the Cumans was on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, they burned the surrounding area and robbed the nearest villages. In 1068, the Cumans defeated the troops of the Yaroslavichs, in 1078 Izyaslav Yaroslavich died in a battle with them, in 1093 the Cumans defeated the troops of 3 princes: Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh and Rostislav, and in 1094 they forced Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. Subsequently, several retaliatory campaigns were made. In 1096, the Polovtsians suffered their first defeat in the fight against Russia. In 1103 they were defeated by Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh, then they served King David the Builder in the Caucasus.

The final defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir Monomakh and the Russian army of many thousands occurred as a result crusade in 1111. To avoid final destruction, the Polovtsians changed their place of nomadism, moving across the Danube, and most of their troops, along with their families, went to Georgia. All these “all-Russian” campaigns against the Polovtsians were led by Vladimir Monomakh. After his death in 1125, the Cumans accepted Active participation in the internecine wars of the Russian princes, participated in the defeat of Kyiv as allies in 1169 and 1203.

The next campaign against the Polovtsy, also referred to as the massacre of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsy, described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” took place in 1185. This campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich was an example of one of the unsuccessful ones. After some time, some of the Polovtsians converted to Christianity, and a period of calm began in the Polovtsian raids.

The Polovtsians ceased to exist as an independent, politically developed people after the European campaigns of Batu (1236 - 1242) and made up the majority of the population of the Golden Horde, passing on to them their language, which formed the basis for the formation of other languages ​​(Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Kazakh, Karakalpak , Kumyk and others).