Byzantium at the end of the XI-XII centuries. Byzantine Empire Capital of the Byzantine Empire in the 9th - 11th centuries
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 under the blows of the Germanic tribes, the Eastern Empire was the only surviving power that preserved the traditions of the Ancient World. The Eastern or Byzantine Empire managed to preserve the traditions of Roman culture and statehood over the years of its existence.
Foundation of Byzantium
The history of the Byzantine Empire begins with the founding of the city of Constantinople by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great in 330. It was also called New Rome.
The Byzantine Empire turned out to be much stronger than the Western Roman Empire in terms of a number of reasons :
- The slave system in Byzantium in the early Middle Ages was less developed than in the Western Roman Empire. The population of the Eastern Empire was 85% free.
- In the Byzantine Empire there was still a strong connection between the countryside and the city. Small-scale farming was developed, which instantly adapted to the changing market.
- If you look at the territory that Byzantium occupied, you can see that the state included extremely economically developed regions at that time: Greece, Syria, Egypt.
- Thanks to strong army and the fleet, the Byzantine Empire quite successfully withstood the onslaught of barbarian tribes.
- IN major cities The empire retained trade and craft. The main productive force were free peasants, artisans and small traders.
- The Byzantine Empire adopted Christianity as its main religion. This made it possible to quickly establish relationships with neighboring countries.
Rice. 1. Map of the Byzantine Empire in the 9th and early 11th centuries.
Internal organization political system Byzantium was not very different from the early medieval barbarian kingdoms in the West: the power of the emperor rested on large feudal lords, consisting of military leaders, Slavic nobility, former slave owners and officials.
Timeline of the Byzantine Empire
The history of the Byzantine Empire is usually divided into three main periods: Early Byzantine (IV-VIII centuries), Middle Byzantine (IX-XII centuries) and Late Byzantine (XIII-XV centuries).
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Speaking briefly about the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, it should be noted that main city Byzantium rose even more after the absorption of the Roman provinces by barbarian tribes. Until the 9th century, buildings of ancient architecture were built, and exact sciences were developed. The first higher school in Europe opened in Constantinople. The Church of Hagia Sophia became a real miracle of human creation.
Rice. 2. Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
Early Byzantine period
At the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th centuries, the borders of the Byzantine Empire covered Palestine, Egypt, Thrace, the Balkans and Asia Minor. The Eastern Empire was significantly ahead of the Western barbarian kingdoms in the construction of large cities, as well as in the development of crafts and trade. The presence of a merchant and military fleet made Byzantium a major maritime power. The heyday of the empire continued until the 12th century.
- 527-565 reign of Emperor Justinian I.
The emperor proclaimed the idea or recornista: “Restoration of the Roman Empire.” To achieve this goal, Justinian waged wars of conquest with the barbarian kingdoms. The Vandal states in North Africa fell under the blows of Byzantine troops, and the Ostrogoths in Italy were defeated.
In the occupied territories, Justinian I introduced new laws called the “Justinian Code”; slaves and columns were transferred to their former owners. This caused extreme discontent among the population and later became one of the reasons for the decline of the Eastern Empire.
- 610-641 The reign of Emperor Heraclius.
As a result of the Arab invasion, Byzantium lost Egypt in 617. In the east, Heraclius abandoned the fight against the Slavic tribes, giving them the opportunity to settle along the borders, using them as a natural shield against the nomadic tribes. One of the main merits of this emperor is the return to Jerusalem of the Life-Giving Cross, which was captured from the Persian king Khosrow II. - 717 Arab siege of Constantinople.
For almost a whole year, the Arabs unsuccessfully stormed the capital of Byzantium, but in the end they failed to take the city and rolled back with heavy losses. In many ways, the siege was repulsed thanks to the so-called “Greek fire.” - 717-740 Reign of Leo III.
The years of the reign of this emperor were marked by the fact that Byzantium not only successfully waged wars with the Arabs, but also by the fact that the Byzantine monks tried to spread Orthodox faith among Jews and Muslims. Under Emperor Leo III, the veneration of icons was prohibited. Hundreds of valuable icons and other works of art related to Christianity were destroyed. Iconoclasm continued until 842.
At the end of the 7th and beginning of the 8th centuries, a reform of self-government bodies took place in Byzantium. The empire began to be divided not into provinces, but into themes. This is how the administrative districts headed by the strategists began to be called. They had power and held court on their own. Each theme was obliged to field a militia-stratum.
Middle Byzantine period
Despite the loss of the Balkan lands, Byzantium is still considered a powerful power, because its navy continued to dominate the Mediterranean Sea. The period of the highest power of the empire lasted from 850 to 1050 and is considered the era of “classical Byzantium”.
- 886-912 Reign of Leo VI the Wise.
The emperor followed the policies of previous emperors; Byzantium, during the reign of this emperor, continues to defend itself from external enemies. A crisis was brewing within the political system, which was expressed in the confrontation between the Patriarch and the Emperor. - 1018 Bulgaria joins Byzantium.
The northern borders can be strengthened thanks to the baptism of the Bulgarians and Slavs of Kievan Rus. - In 1048, the Seljuk Turks, led by Ibrahim Inal, invaded Transcaucasia and took the Byzantine city of Erzurum.
The Byzantine Empire did not have enough forces to protect the southeastern borders. Soon the Armenian and Georgian rulers recognized themselves as dependent on the Turks. - 1046 Peace treaty between Kievan Rus and Byzantium.
Emperor of Byzantium Vladimir Monomakh married his daughter Anna to Prince of Kyiv Vsevolod. Relations between Rus' and Byzantium were not always friendly; there were many aggressive campaigns of ancient Russian princes against the Eastern Empire. At the same time, one cannot fail to note the enormous influence that Byzantine culture had on Kievan Rus. - 1054 The Great Schism.
There was a final split between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. - 1071 The city of Bari in Apulia was taken by the Normans.
The last stronghold of the Byzantine Empire in Italy fell. - 1086-1091 The war of the Byzantine Emperor Alexei I with the alliance of the Pecheneg and Cuman tribes.
Thanks to the cunning policy of the emperor, the alliance of nomadic tribes disintegrated, and the Pechenegs were decisively defeated in 1091.
From the 11th century, the gradual decline of the Byzantine Empire began. The division into themes became obsolete due to the growing number of large farmers. The state was constantly exposed to attacks from the outside, no longer able to fight numerous enemies. The main danger was the Seljuks. During the clashes, the Byzantines managed to clear them from the southern coast of Asia Minor.
Late Byzantine period
Since the 11th century, the activity of Western European countries has increased. The Crusader troops, raising the flag of the “defenders of the Holy Sepulcher,” attacked Byzantium. Unable to fight numerous enemies, the Byzantine emperors used armies of mercenaries. At sea, Byzantium used the fleets of Pisa and Venice.
- 1122 The troops of Emperor John II Komnenos repelled the Pecheneg invasion.
There are continuous wars with Venice at sea. However, the main danger was the Seljuks. During the clashes, the Byzantines managed to clear them from the southern coast of Asia Minor. In the fight against the crusaders, the Byzantines managed to clear Northern Syria. - 1176 Defeat of the Byzantine troops at Myriokephalos from the Seljuk Turks.
After this defeat, Byzantium finally switched to defensive wars. - 1204 Constantinople fell under the attacks of the crusaders.
The core of the Crusader army was the French and Genoese. Central Byzantium, occupied by the Latins, is formed into a separate autonomy and is called the Latin Empire. After the fall of the capital, the Byzantine Church was under the jurisdiction of the pope, and Tomazzo Morosini was appointed supreme patriarch. - 1261
The Latin Empire was completely cleared of the crusaders, and Constantinople was liberated by the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
Byzantium during the reign of the Palaiologos
During the reign of the Palaiologos, Byzantium experienced a complete decline of cities. The dilapidated cities looked especially shabby against the backdrop of flourishing villages. Agriculture experienced a boom caused by high demand for the products of feudal estates.
The dynastic marriages of the Palaiologans with the royal courts of Western and Eastern Europe and the constant close contact between them became the reason for the appearance of their own heraldry among the Byzantine rulers. The Palaiologan family was the first to have its own coat of arms.
Rice. 3. Coat of arms of the Palaiologan dynasty.
- In 1265, Venice monopolized almost all trade in Constantinople.
A trade war broke out between Genoa and Venice. Often, stabbings between foreign merchants took place in front of local onlookers in city squares. By strangling the domestic sales market, the emperor's Byzantine rulers caused a new wave of self-hatred. - 1274 Imprisonment of Michael VIII Palaiologos in Lyon new union with Dad.
The union carried the conditions of the supremacy of the Pope over the entire Christian world. This completely split society and caused a series of unrest in the capital. - 1341 Revolt in Adrianople and Thessalonica of the population against the magnates.
The uprising was led by zealots (zealots). They wanted to take land and property from the church and magnates for the poor. - 1352 Adrianople was captured by the Ottoman Turks.
They made it their capital. They took the Tsimpe fortress on the Gallipoli Peninsula. Nothing prevented the further advance of the Turks into the Balkans.
By the beginning of the 15th century, the territory of Byzantium was limited to Constantinople with its districts, part of Central Greece and islands in the Aegean Sea.
In 1452, the Ottoman Turks began the siege of Constantinople. On May 29, 1453 the city fell. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine II Palaiologos, died in battle.
Despite Byzantium's alliance with a number of Western European countries, it was impossible to count on military assistance. Thus, during the siege of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Venice and Genoa sent six warships and several hundred people. Naturally, they could not provide any significant help.
What have we learned?
The Byzantine Empire remained the only ancient power that retained its political and social system, despite the Great Migration. With the fall of Byzantium, a new era begins in the history of the Middle Ages. From this article we learned how many years the Byzantine Empire lasted and what influence this state had on the countries of Western Europe and Kievan Rus.
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Less than 80 years after the partition, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, leaving Byzantium as the historical, cultural and civilizational successor to Ancient Rome for almost ten centuries of late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.
The Eastern Roman Empire received the name “Byzantine” in the works of Western European historians after its fall; it comes from the original name of Constantinople - Byzantium, where the Roman Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 330, officially renaming the city “New Rome”. The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek "Romeans", and their power - the "Roman ("Roman") Empire" (in Middle Greek (Byzantine) language - Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileía Romaíon) or briefly "Romania" (Ῥωμανί α, Romania) . Western sources for most of the time Byzantine history called it the “Empire of the Greeks” because of the predominance in it Greek language, Hellenized population and culture. In Ancient Rus', Byzantium was usually called the “Greek Kingdom”, and its capital was Constantinople.
The permanent capital and civilizational center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople, one of the largest cities of the medieval world. The empire controlled its largest possessions under Emperor Justinian I (527-565), regaining for several decades a significant part of the coastal territories of the former western provinces of Rome and the position of the most powerful Mediterranean power. Subsequently, under the pressure of numerous enemies, the state gradually lost its lands.
After the Slavic, Lombard, Visigothic and Arab conquests, the empire occupied only the territory of Greece and Asia Minor. Some strengthening in the 9th-11th centuries was replaced by serious losses at the end of the 11th century, during the Seljuk invasion, and defeat at Manzikert, strengthening during the first Komnenos, after the collapse of the country under the blows of the crusaders who took Constantinople in 1204, another strengthening under John Vatatz, restoration empire by Michael Palaiologos, and finally, its final destruction in the middle of the 15th century under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks.
Population
The ethnic composition of the population of the Byzantine Empire, especially at the first stage of its history, was extremely diverse: Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Copts, Armenians, Jews, Hellenized Asia Minor tribes, Thracians, Illyrians, Dacians, South Slavs. With the reduction of the territory of Byzantium (starting from the end of the 6th century), some peoples remained outside its borders - at the same time, new peoples invaded and settled here (Goths in the 4th-5th centuries, Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries, Arabs in the 7th-9th centuries, Pechenegs, Polovtsians in the 11th-13th centuries, etc.). In the 6th-11th centuries, the population of Byzantium included ethnic groups from which the Italian nation was later formed. The predominant role in the economy, political life and culture of Byzantium in the west of the country was played by the Greek population, and in the east by the Armenian population. The official language of Byzantium in the 4th-6th centuries was Latin, from the 7th century until the end of the empire - Greek.
State structure
From the Roman Empire, Byzantium inherited a monarchical form of government with an emperor at its head. From the 7th century the head of state was more often called autocrat (Greek. Αὐτοκράτωρ - autocrat) or basileus (Greek. Βασιλεὺς ).
The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures - East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the Praetorian Prefect of the East and the Praetorian Prefect of Illyricum. Constantinople was allocated as a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople.
The previous system of government and financial management was maintained for a long time. But from the end of the 6th century significant changes began. Reforms are mainly related to defense ( Administrative division to themes instead of exarchates) and the predominantly Greek culture of the country (the introduction of the positions of logothete, strategos, drungaria, etc.). Since the 10th century, feudal principles of governance have spread widely; this process led to the establishment of representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne. Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and struggles for the imperial throne did not stop.
Two senior military officials there were the commander-in-chief of the infantry and the chief of the cavalry, later these positions were combined; in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Strateg Opsikia). In addition, there was a master of infantry and cavalry of the East (Strategos of Anatolica), a master of infantry and cavalry of Illyricum, a master of infantry and cavalry of Thrace (Strategos of Thrace).
Byzantine emperors
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for almost a thousand years; in historiography from that time on it is usually called Byzantium.
For ruling class Byzantium was characterized by mobility. At all times, a person from the bottom could make his way to power. In some cases it was even easier for him: for example, he had the opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory. Thus, for example, Emperor Michael II Travl was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820); Vasily I was a peasant and then a horse trainer in the service of a noble nobleman. Roman I Lecapinus was also a descendant of peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers.
Army
Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure was closer to the phalanx system of the Hellenic states. By the end of Byzantium's existence, it became mainly mercenary and had a rather low combat capability.
But a system of military command and supply was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are published, a variety of technical means are widely used, in particular, a system of beacons is being built to warn of enemy attacks. In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet, which the invention of “Greek fire” helps to gain supremacy at sea, greatly increases. Fully armored cavalry - cataphracts - was adopted from the Sassanids. At the same time, technically complex throwing weapons, ballistae and catapults are disappearing, replaced by simpler stone throwers.
The transition to the femme system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years of successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decrease in combat effectiveness. The recruitment system was changed to a typically feudal one, when the nobility was obliged to supply military contingents for the right to own land.
Subsequently, the army and navy fell into ever greater decline, and at the very end of the empire’s existence they became purely mercenary formations. In 1453, Constantinople, with a population of 60 thousand inhabitants, was able to field only a 5 thousand army and 2.5 thousand mercenaries. Since the 10th century, the emperors of Constantinople hired Rus and warriors from neighboring barbarian tribes. Since the 11th century, ethnically mixed Varangians played a significant role in the heavy infantry, and the light cavalry was recruited from Turkic nomads.
After the era of Viking campaigns came to an end at the beginning of the 11th century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as from Viking-conquered Normandy and England) flocked to Byzantium across the Mediterranean Sea. The future Norwegian king Harald the Severe fought for several years in the Varangian Guard throughout the Mediterranean. The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the Crusaders in 1204 and was defeated when the city was captured.
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Start date: 395
Expiration date: 1453
Helpful information
Byzantine Empire
Byzantium
Eastern Roman Empire
Arab. لإمبراطورية البيزنطية or بيزنطة
English Byzantine Empire or Byzantium
Hebrew האימפריה הביזנטית
Culture and society
The period of reign of the emperors from Basil I of Macedon to Alexios I Komnenos (867-1081) was of great cultural significance. The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the works of the famous Byzantines Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic alphabet, the Glagolitic alphabet, appeared, which led to the emergence of the Slavs’ own written literature. Patriarch Photius put barriers to the claims of the popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to ecclesiastical independence from Rome (see Division of Churches).
In the scientific field, this period is characterized by extraordinary fertility and diversity of literary enterprises. Collections and adaptations of this period preserve precious historical, literary and archaeological material borrowed from writers now lost.
Economy
The state included rich lands with a large number of cities - Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. In cities, artisans and merchants united into classes. Belonging to the class was not a duty, but a privilege; entry into it was subject to a number of conditions. The conditions established by the eparch (city governor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were compiled in the 10th century in a collection of decrees, the Book of the Eparch.
Despite the corrupt management system, very high taxes, slave farming and court intrigues, the economy of Byzantium long time was the strongest in Europe. Trade was carried out with all former Roman possessions in the west and with India (via the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east. Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich. But financial expenses were also very large, and the wealth of the country aroused great envy. The decline in trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of finances and the state as a whole.
Science, medicine, law
Throughout the entire period of the existence of the state, Byzantine science was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics. The main activities of scientists were in the applied field, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire. At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers. From the era of Justinian until the end of the first millennium, scientific knowledge was in severe decline, but subsequently Byzantine scientists again showed themselves, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arab and Persian science.
Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made compared to antiquity. The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance.
In the last century of the empire, Byzantium played an important role in the dissemination of ancient Greek literature in early Renaissance Italy. By that time, the Academy of Trebizond had become the main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics.
Right
The reforms of Justinian I in the field of law had a great influence on the development of jurisprudence. Byzantine criminal law was largely borrowed from Rus'.
Since the 11th century, Byzantium found itself in a difficult situation. At the end of the 11th century, the decline in the internal state status of Byzantium was noted. Internal problems engulf the Eastern Roman Empire, and it is heading towards decline. There are historical processes that lead to such results.
The central problem is the loss of internal state status: power for the sake of power and so on. The emperors can no longer hold Byzantium as a great state, the officials - for their own sake, the people - separately, and the Church - cannot hold everything permanently.
Byzantium lived on the achievements of past centuries. There are no great people among the emperors, such as Constantine the Great, Theodosius the Great, and so on. (Time produces people). The state cannot withstand this, and a weak state becomes the prey of others. From the 13th century it became clear that it was impossible to withstand stronger rivals.
Already in the 11th century we see serious reasons. Seljuk Turks from Central Asia appear on the border. In 1071, the Battle of Montsekerque (Armenia) was lost, as Emperor Romanus Diogenes was betrayed for power. The Turks captured Armenia, penetrated Syria, Antioch, Palestine and so on. For 50 years, Byzantium had to fight the Turks and push them to the East.
12th century. The Komnenos dynasty pushed back the Turks. The Comneni are oriented toward Western rulers. This indulgence of the knights spoke of little hope in their own strength. It was with negotiations with the Komnenos that the 1st Crusade began. The Crusaders treated the Byzantines with contempt. They (the Byzantines) did not even take up weapons to fight the Muslims (they were very pampered), but used the crusaders to fight. 1099-1101 (10) years. The Crusaders were very disdainful of the Byzantines. Christianity is a right faith and must defend itself with the sword, and not with knowledge. The Crusaders strengthened the division of the Churches and behaved rudely and vulgarly. A group of crusaders entered an Orthodox church in Antioch and went to receive communion. They did not understand the language, grabbed the patriarch, threw him out and installed their own and began to celebrate the Latin Mass. In this tragicomic way the division of the Churches was established. And further, when they captured Jerusalem, they did not stand on ceremony with the Orthodox. This is where the nicknames “Latins” and “Greeks” come from. Latin is a follower of the old ancient Rome, and the Greek is an effete philosopher.
Since the 12th century, the Komnenos have been building a conciliatory policy. The crusaders reached the Euphrates. They had not washed for a long time and had beards. For the Byzantines this was unheard of savagery. One of the knights’ chroniclers wrote: “The Greeks are so arrogant that they eat food with sharp chopsticks.” For the crusaders it was arrogance and swagger. The fork is an invention of Christianity. Since we protect the soul, we must also protect the body. In order not to overeat like a pagan, we will eat with a fork. The chair appears so as not to overeat. This is the Byzantine vision of culture. The Greeks were carriers of Christian culture, even in everyday life. But a Greek will not communicate with a pagan, and this is understandable. Lack of culture leads away from Christ. This craving for culture, its everyday component, scared off the crusaders (external understanding), and they considered them effeminate.
Along with rudeness, one should not deny the religious aspect. The crusaders for the most part were not warriors, but pilgrims, and during the war they took up arms. As they entered the Holy Land, so they left. And in the 12th century, Byzantium was again left alone with the Muslims.
The Komnenians saw that the Western army was superior to the Eastern one due to vassal relations and the ability to fight.
The Saljuk Turks were replaced by the Ottoman Turks. By the end of the 12th century, discord in Byzantium reached such a climax that Byzantium could become prey to the Turks.
At the end of the 12th century - the 4th Crusade. A struggle for power began and the Byzantines invited the crusaders to restore order in Constantinople. They happily agreed.
Who turned the troops to Constantinople instead of going to the Holy Land?
1. Maybe it was the deposed Alexius III, Emperor of Constantinople. (He sent his son for help in the West. Later the son would become Alexei IV.)
2. This was beneficial to Venice and Doge Henry Gondola. By that time, Constantinople could not cope with trade in the East. Their competitors Venice and Genoa supplied the crusaders with ships, and they provided them with trading ports. Venice was in a difficult place to reach. The sea was surrounded by sandbanks and swamps, and there was only one fairway (kept secret). Venice and Constantinople are competitors, and Venice benefited from the capture of Constantinople. Henry Gondola agreed with the crusaders that the spoils would be divided.
3. Pope Innocent III established the Catholic Church in the East. According to their understanding, the Roman Church is dominant, and all Eastern Churches should belong to Rome. This should confirm the primacy of Rome. It is impossible to confirm this with historical data. Innocent III condemned the capture of Constantinople, since he needed unification or a treaty of friendship with the East, since the threat of Islam came from there. Dad benefited from the capture, but the quarrel did not benefit him. The West needed allies. And the pope, on the one hand, wanted to suppress the Greeks, and on the other hand, not to lose allies.
The crusaders thought that they were being used and they would not give the spoils to anyone. In 1203, the crusaders approached Constantinople, Emperor Isaac II fled. Alexei IV became the emperor, and had to pay for the return of the throne. There was no money. The crusaders waited for six months. Alexey decided to appease them with a drinking party, which lasted from the autumn of 1203 to April 1204. Residents began clashes with the crusaders, in one of which Alexei IV was killed. Alexey V refused to pay, and in April 1204 the assault on Constantinople began. Constantinople was heavily plundered, and the loot was exported for 6 years. Mostly they robbed shrines (for a year), since they are the basis of faith and, as the crusaders believed, they should be in our cities (supposedly the Shroud of Turin, presumably the Tree of the Lord burned, the relics of the Magi). The fanatical desire for relics led to the division of relics and to incidents! About 20 nails from the Cross, 3-4 heads of John the Baptist. Monasteries literally fought for shrines. Behind all this there was a wild “strong” faith in these shrines. (IN Western Europe this resulted in atheism and denial of relics.) Possession of shrines means possession of grace, i.e. faith that the Lord will not leave me.
In place of Byzantium, the “Latin Empire” arose. The Orthodox Church found itself persecuted. Temples were closed and served with the Latin rite. This raised the national spirit and in 1261 Byzantium regained Constantinople under the leadership of Michael VIII Palaiologos. But Byzantium will no longer become a leading state. After the liberation of Constantinople, Byzantium itself will only be a purely Greek world of the Greeks, and how national education, territory adjacent to Constantinople. The empire is a thing of the past. But the culture and Byzantine royal habits remained.
It is difficult for her to resist the onslaughts from the West and East. The Ottoman Turks appeared on the border of Byzantium at the end of the 13th century. They are driven here by the Tatar-Mongols (Genghis Khan) from the territory of Armenia and Iran. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Ottomans began their campaigns of conquest. The original center of the Ottomans was Cappadocia. Next they will push Byzantium to the West. The Ottoman Turks were not savages, but they did not have high culture, although administratively they were much better than the Byzantines. They invited scientists, military men, and administrators. Many educated Greeks went into their service. The Ottoman Turks were Muslims. The conquest took place slowly but surely. In 1326, Nicomedia was captured, in 1332, near Nicaea, Byzantine troops were defeated, and in 1334, bypassing Constantinople, the Turks entered Europe. In 1362, the Ottomans moved their capital to Adrianople (Europe). During the 14th century, the Ottomans defeated the Serbs, Croats, and Bulgarians. In 1389, the battle of Kosovo took place. The Serbs were defeated, the state was destroyed, even the death of Sultan Murad 1st did not help.
1. Capture of the Black Sea coast.
2. Carpathians. In the 17th century they advanced as far as possible and would be stopped by the Poles on the northern slopes of the Carpathians.
3. To the West - to Hungary. Hungary will be dismembered by the Turks: part of them, and part of the Hungarians (along the Danube River). IN early XVII century, the Turks will be stopped near Vienna by Wallenstein.
In the 14th century, Byzantium was Constantinople and its environs.
At the beginning of the 15th century, Byzantium was saved, without knowing it, by the army of Tamerlane, defeating the Turks and delaying the capture of Constantinople.
Sultan Mohammed II (1451) decided to take Constantinople. The last emperor was Constantine XI (like the founder of the city), intelligent, enlightened and active. But alas, the irony of fate. He couldn't save the city. In 1453, the Turks blocked the city. The siege lasted several months. Constantinople hoped to the West, but there the importance of Constantinople for the Christian world was underestimated. But not all. In 1444 Polish king Vladislav gathered knighthood (Poles and Hungarians) and this army died near Varna. This was the last attempt to help Constantinople. Vladislav himself was miraculously saved. The Knights of the Order of Malta shut down their king and pulled him out of the battle. Apparently, there was no longer any strength to restrain the more advanced Turkish military and economic machine. The Venetians tried to persuade the pope to do one more crusade, but this idea has become obsolete. Only 200 Venetians arrived. The defenders of Constantinople numbered about 10,000 people, among them women and children. There were 100,000 Turks Mohammed II (in Turkish, Mihmed II) achieved his goal. The city was practically under siege since the fall of 1453, and on April 28, 1454, Constantinople fell. The defense skillfully defended itself, but its strength was dwindling. The Constantinopolitans also had successes; they set fire to huge siege engines. Just before the siege of April 28, Mahmed put almost one-fourth of his army in a ditch near the city. The rest literally walked over corpses. The defenders did not have the strength to physically stop the capture; they did not have enough people. The last Emperor Constantine XI died in the battle for the ditch, and his body was identified only by his boots. The day before, a service was held in the Church of St. Sophia, all the defenders took communion and, according to legend, the priest entered the wall more often and will come out when Constantinople is liberated from the Turks.
The capture of the first fortress wall did not yet mean the capture of the city, but there was no more strength. Mahmed II gave 3 days for the plunder, but by the evening he had already taken pity and forbade it. Soon he allowed Christians to serve, but the Byzantine Church was already under the rule of the Crescent.
Byzantium perished as a state, but did not perish as a single cultural whole. The reason is faith, Orthodoxy. These are not big words and propaganda. The point is the historical truth, logic and power of Orthodoxy. The Byzantines do not consider their state a stronghold of religion, but an expression of their faith, and faith is expressed by culture. Faith is the true soul of the Orthodox people. That is why the faith of Eastern Christians received the name “Orthodox”, and since we confess correctly, the fall of the state is not capable of destroying this faith. The state was dying in the 14th – 15th centuries, and what to save: faith or government structure. Of course, faith, since one can hope for the revival of the state, but not vice versa. This is Byzantine and common Orthodox wisdom. Hence the love of the Greeks and all Eastern Christians for their faith. And Byzantium did not perish, its soul remained. We constantly turn to Byzantine culture, compare ourselves to the cultural level, since it is unusually high (sitting down at a chair, taking pasta with a fork, looking at an icon, Moscow - the third Rome - comparison with Byzantium). It is an influence that remains to this day. The influence is still enormous. The source of this influence was faith. Faith was at the center of the state, so it was strong and tenacious. When compared with Byzantium, we are compared with faith.
Hesychast dispute
The last dispute that affected the East even before the fall of Constantinople. It started out simply and did not claim global significance. But it still plays an important role in the worldview of East and West.
The dispute begins with a conversation about the practice of monastic prayer. One of the types prayers - hesychia(peace, silence) appears in the 4th – 5th centuries. We find a description of such a prayer in the 9th – 11th centuries. Appearance The prayer was as follows: the monk remained in his cell (room), took a comfortable position sitting on his knees and began to read the Jesus Prayer, his head bowed forward, his gaze falling to the navel area. After several hours of prayer, the person was rewarded with a vision of divine light. Internally - a feeling of indescribable joy and peace of mind, the joy of being in prayer, the joy of being. Among other types of prayers, this practice would have existed quietly if not for the monk Varlaam. Varlaam from Calabria to 1328 arrived in Thessaloniki, where I heard from one monk about this practice: they see the Tabor light, thus they see the divine nature. Varlaam became an opponent of such prayer. At first, this opinion did not cause a reaction, since sometimes neighboring monasteries differed in prayer practice. Further Varlaam began to criticize the very essence of prayer. He believes that people cannot see the divine nature. Thus, the monks deceive themselves that they see God, and this light is a psychological phenomenon, and not divine. From the very beginning, Varlaam’s critics did not notice that the goal of hesychasm is victory over passions. And before the dispute with Varlaam, the monks did not claim to see the divine nature. Barlaam's criticism is based on apophatic theology - it is impossible to see God. God is also not knowable (Barlaam’s logic, especially through the senses, especially through vision). How do we know God? According to Varlaam - through knowledge of nature, and knowledge of nature - through logic ( syllogisms) (i.e. indirect knowledge of God). Comprehension of truth brings us closer to God. Of course, it is better for the “pure in heart” to know God, but the statement that we know God through feelings is wrong. And visible light is a mirage, material light. Finding out how it happens hesychast prayer on Mount Athos, Varlaam began to call them pupodumami. Varlaam will touch upon the question of the knowability of God. He has come to a dead end, God is not knowable, therefore all these practices are self-deception. This affected the hesychasts. In 1328 he published a book, and after that at a monastic meeting on Mount Athos they nominated a man who would defend hesychasm. It was Gregory Palamas(died 1359). He was from a wealthy family and initially prepared himself for a career as a lawyer. He became interested in ancient manuscripts, went to Athos to get them and remained a monk there. He was obedient to the library. The choice is clear.
In 1329, he left Athos to better defend hesychasm. Byzantine society was divided into Varlamites and Pamalites.
In 1338, Gregory Palamas wrote triads in defense of the hesychasts, where he removed the excesses of apophatic theology (God is not knowable). The light seen by the monks is not the being of God, but also not a mental psychological image, but “the manifestation and implementation inseparably inherent in the Divine Being, otherwise - the natural property and energy of the Divine.” Varlaam answered this way: all the same, if this light, although it comes from the Divine, is perceived by human feelings, then the Divinity is perceived by human feelings, which cannot be. Gregory Palamas: The source of light is inexpressibly higher, but just as we can speak about the sun by its rays and warmth, so we can judge the essence of God by the light of Tabor. This Tabor light, like many other phenomena, is Divine energy, grace and glory, which is given to certain people (saints, relics, icons). Thus, Palamas' theology is not a denial of the knowledge of God through science, but a real participation in the life of God through the sacraments and prayer. He, referring to the Cappadocian fathers, says that God is not accessible in his Essence, but not in his energies. We do not participate in His inner being, but we participate in His energies. “God revealed Himself to all that exists through His manifestations, through His creative actions and energies... And we can participate in the life of the Divine in one way or another, so that each of us in the manner (form) appropriate for him and according to the degree of participation could receive being, life and deification"
Further development of Barlaam's theory came to the conclusion that God is (indirectly) knowable through science. According to Gregory, the knowledge of God is carried out through the energies of God, the manifestation of God to us, that is, I do not know God, but God reveals Himself to us (through the sacraments and prayers, first of all; through the mystical knowledge of God). God manifests Himself, His glory and grace (through saints, relics, miracles). What will be the manifestation of God, Gregory Palamas does not have a clear reasoning. The goal of our participation in the life of God, the mystical knowledge of God (vision of the Tabor light) in any form according to the degree of participation - obtaining being, the truth of life and deification. Historically, the victory of the theology of Gregory Palamas occurred in 1351. In 1348, G. Palamas was expelled and captured by the Seljuk Turks. After his return in 1351, all charges against him were dropped and Palamism triumphed at the conciliar level.
A divided society took sides. Varlaam, then the side of Gregory Palamas. (this is associated with emperors). The Cathedral has been an important Cathedral since 1351. in 1352, a synod was published confirming the correctness of the theology of Gregory Palamas.
Gregory Palamas undermined healthy things in exile (in Cappadocia) and in captivity. After 2 years, his relatives bought him and sent him from Constantinople to Thessaloniki, where popular and church perception awaited him. Here he was ordained Metropolitan of Thessalonica. Here he died in 1359. In 1368 he was canonized, as his merits were great.
The question of the development of Palamism . After the death of Gregory Palamas, the following happened to his ideas. Varlaam went to the West, converted to Catholicism and was one of the first to present this dispute as a dispute about monastic practice. After Varlaam, in the West and in some countries of the East, this dispute began to be perceived as such. But the essence of the dispute is about uncreated energies and their perception by us (The theology of Gregory Palamas is based on mystical experience). Historically, this dispute has come to be considered primitivism. And in the West they thought so for a long time. But when the question is posed in this way (about purely monastic work), then thoughts of identity, for example, with Buddhism only arise. They returned to Gregory Palamas in the 15th – 17th centuries, when the Greeks aroused interest in Gregory Palamas in the West. But Gregory was recognized as a logician, that is, Gregory’s logic was recognized, a philosophical approach, not a theological one.
In Russia, the attitude towards Gregory Palamas was approximately the same - a defender of hesychasm. Since the time of Paisius Velichkovsky, a healthy interest in the saint has awakened.
The dispute of the 14th century was a dispute between church mysticism and rationalism. In the West, rationalism prevailed, and therefore they say that Varlamism won. No, not varlamism, but rationalism. The fate of theology: rationalism won in society, but this only increased interest.
Independent topic: Attempts at the unions of Lyon and Florence .
This is a historically closed question. Attempts at union were doomed to failure in advance and had no historical development. The West and the East saw their own petty interests in the union; there were no underlying processes. From the East there are attempts to call on the West for military assistance. But the West was not really going to help. This question concerned only the emperor and his entourage. The people and clergy did not accept the union, so the emperor pretended that the union had occurred. The West also pursued mercantile goals. The bulk of the masses were not interested in relations with the East, only the pope and “those like him.” This was an attempt to unite forces around Rome to combat the threat from the Turks and Tatars. To establish a relationship, you need to agree on church issues. Since the 13th century (second half), opposition to the popes has been growing on the part of individual states and universities. The idea of national churches appears. Universities have discovered that supreme authority in the Church belongs to the Council, not to the popes. This criticism continued and resulted in Protestantism. Through the attempt at union, the authority of the papacy rose.
Union with local Eastern Churches is another matter. They were built on different foundations and therefore survived historically.
The emperor himself did not believe in the union. When the initiators don’t look deeply, that’s it! Krants! That's why they burst after a few decades.
Question about filioque no one particularly touched on it, because the goals of the union were different (not up to theology).
The spread of Christianity in Europe among barbarian peoples .
The term used to denote unity around the pope was " Pax Christe", or " Republica Christiana"(Liturgy). There is no difference between worship and life. In the East, this was only discussed in the 20th century by the Romanian theologian Ion Bria. In the West, this Liturgy continues in life. The basis of a knight's fearlessness is only Christian. To sin and then repent was a common occurrence in the Middle Ages. It's all one stream of faith. The person who turns me away from faith, attaching wings and encroaching on the divine, is first admonished, and then... God gave wings only to Angels and birds.
This unification around Rome was called " Civitas Dei"(City of God). In the Middle Ages, the level of culture and life was very low. But even with this standard of living, the Christian faith and these countries of medieval civilization were called “civilized.” Civilization is where Christ is. Therefore, in the opinion of Blessed. Augustine The Kingdom of God is the City of God on earth. The Kingdom of God is being erected not only within, but also around, in society. Apparently, the construction of the Kingdom of God is the construction of a city (that is why in medieval paintings the construction of a city was depicted in the background).
Spain . Since ancient times, the territory of Spain was inhabited by Iberians, and near the Mediterranean Sea by Phoenicians and Greeks. Christianity, therefore, has been known here since the 1st century. Tradition says that the apostles preached here. Apparently, the Apostle Paul was here. But the founding of churches in the central part is associated with the name of the Apostle James. The legend itself points to the brother of the Lord. Confusion! Rather, this is a certain Jacob from the 70s. Hence the love of the Spaniards for Paul and especially James. Peoples name places after saints. The Spaniards called it Santiago (Saint James). This is the most common geographical name.
In the 5th century, Spain was conquered by the Vandals and Visigoths. They professed Arianism. And from about 460 the confrontation with Arianism began. In 569, at the Council of Toledo, the filioque was introduced into the Creed in order to combat Arianism. In 589, Arianism was defeated and the use of filioque was introduced throughout Spain.
Bishop Isidore of Seville participated in these events, who affirms the Church throughout the peninsula, and also asserts the primacy of Rome in the status of the system: the Bishop of Seville is appointed by the pope, and the Bishop of Seville blesses the king elected at church councils.
Spain was a motley and disunited country, and the Church and the Bishop of Seville were the only unifying principles. Until now, the unity of the Church guarantees the unity of the country, as well as devotion to the king.
After Isidore of Seville in the 8th century (710 - 746), Spain was conquered by the Moors (Muslims). This period was called Conquista– conquest. And the period from 747 – 1442 got the name Reconquista - liberation. One fortress was not captured by the Muslims Costillon, and its owners became kings. For seven and a half centuries there was a struggle against Muslims. Hence the devotion of the Spaniards to their Church and state, and a brutal military character developed (for example, 400 Spaniards captured Mexico).
British Isles . South part The islands were part of the Roman Empire. Britain was inhabited by Celts and Roman Gauls. Christianity penetrated here already in the 1st century. English tradition connects the spread of Christianity with the name of Joseph of Arimathea. It is difficult to verify this, but at the end of the 1st century there were Christian communities among the Britons (one of the Celtic tribes).
At the beginning of the 5th century, the Angles and Saxons (Germanic tribes) came here, who were pagans and destroyed the Church. (At the I (First) Ecumenical Council there were two Celtic bishops, and the foundation of a temple of the 4th century was found). The descendants of the Celts are the Irish, Scots, British (French), Galicia (Spanish).
Ireland . Christianity came here in 410 - 460s, since it was not under Roman rule. The spread of Christianity is associated with a certain Patrick (origin unknown). He came to Ireland at the beginning of the 5th century, studied the Celtic language and culture, and began to preach Christianity. 431 is the official date of Ireland's adoption of baptism. The Irish Church acquired eastern features: married clergy, the Eucharist on leavened bread (apparently, it was introduced under Joseph of Arimathea). Already in the 5th century, the Irish Church was famous for its enlightenment and education (an amazing thing for the West). Already in the 5th century, Ireland was called the country of saints, the country of monks. Since the time of Patrick, the country has been ruled by clans and Christianity has tamed their wild customs. And now they live in clans (you can tell the clan by the skirt). Each clan built its own monastery and sent every 10th member of the clan to the monastery. They were engaged in education and enlightenment, which was expressed in missionary work. Irish monks preached from Spain to the Carpathians. In many places they founded monasteries (Saint-Galen and Saint-Bernard in Switzerland).
Mainly they began to educate Britain, primarily the Scots. At the end of the 5th century (approx. 497) the baptism of Scotland took place by the preacher Columban. There was also a humility in morals.
Irish missionaries catechized the Angles and Saxons. The complete baptism of the Angles took place in 596. In the north, a department was founded in the city of York. Missionary work also took place from the continent on the initiative of Rome with a see in the city of Kent (Canterbury). These are still the main departments. In England, two traditions merged: Roman and Celtic. Rome gradually destroyed the Celtic tradition at the end of the 6th century under Pope Gregory the Double, and in 644 Easter was established in England according to the Roman tradition.
Germanic tribes . Around the 4th century BC. Germanic tribes are separated from proto-Germanic tribes (which includes Lithuanian and Slavic tribes). They push back the Celts in the West and conquer territory as far as the Rhine. In the 1st century BC, Germanic tribes were involved in the Roman Empire, which they helped in the fight against Gaul. From one name of a commander or a Germanic tribe they will receive the name Germanicum. Already in the 1st century A.D. Among the Germans there are Christians serving in the Roman army (see Irenaeus of Lyons). At the beginning of the 4th century, the Germanic tribes living in southern Germany were enlightened by Martin of Tours. In the full sense, Ulfila can be called the apostle of the Germans (Wulfila around 318-388). Ulfilas was one of the educated Germans, but lived and worked in Constantinople. And in the middle of the 4th century, Constantinople was Arian, and it was baptized by the Arians. Ulfilas first translated the Holy Scriptures into Gothic, and the Goths around 365-366 adopted Christianity in the Arian form. Arianism left its mark on their further development. At the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries they were divided into the Visigoths and Ostrogoths. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and the Ostrogoths in the middle of the 5th century penetrated into northern Italy and captured almost all of Italy. In the 530s they waged a fierce war with the Byzantines. The Ostrogoths renounce Arianism, and their leader Theodora the Great is solemnly baptized in Rowena. (We know very little about Arian Christianity. Most likely, the Arians did not have full-scale baptism. This is due to the exaltation of the role of God the Father.) Still, Arianism served a good role, since the Goths had their own written language, which was a relief in the process of enlightening the Ostrogoths. Theodoric received the title of patrician, and subsequent leaders will demand the title of king.
Christianity among the Alemanni has been known since the 2nd century; Christian Swabians have been known since the 5th century; Burgundians - from 516. Around the same time, the Frisians and Teutons (up the Rhine) were baptized. The Burgundians lived on the left side of the Rhine (part of France). The Bavarians lived east of the Swabians and had sees already in the 4th century, but Bavaria was officially baptized in 676. This event is associated with the name of Saint Boniface. Later, all of the Germanic tribes were baptized by the Saxons (at the end of the 8th century), and paganism was preserved among them until the 10th century. In 812, Charlemagne cut down the famous oak tree that the Saxons worshiped.
In the Roman era, there were known chairs in Vienna (Vienna), Salzburg (Alps), not far from which Athanasius the Great was in exile, and before - Herod and Herodias. In Austria, Archdeacon Stephen is revered. Departments in Würtsburg and Rheintsburg. The department in Trier is the headquarters of Constantine the Great. To the north along the Rhine - in Worms and Main. Later, a Roman colony or Colon (Cologne) was formed. For the education of the Saxons, significant departments were in Dresden and Leipzig.
Slavic tribes . Slavic and Germanic tribes lived in central Europe and were Christianized later. It is fashionable for us now to be a nationalist. This is a sign of patriotism, i.e. I must hate Jews, Americans. Funny! Based on this, they say that the Slavs have been known since the 4th century BC. Wrong. Around the 4th century BC. Slavic tribes moved away from the proto-Lithuanian and proto-Germanic tribes. They had something in common. The principles are difficult to understand. The Germans pressed the Celts, and the Proto-Slavs lived in a small area. And only from the 4th century A.D. The Slavs begin to push out other peoples and in the 6th century they appear in the Balkans, and in the 7th century they push out the Germans in the territory of modern Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Poland. In the 8th century, the Slavs pushed out the Finno-Ugric tribes and occupied the territory from the Carpathians to the Volga. Why are the Slavs not Finno-Ugric tribes? The Slavs named stops by the names of rivers. There are a lot of Finno-Ugric river names on “our” territory. The Slavs captured territories, borrowing these names (Neva, Moscow. “Va” means “water” in Finno-Ugric).
Already in the 6th century, the neighborhood with Byzantium brought the first Slavic Christians. They are servants, warriors or workers. Byzantium initially looked at the Slavs as savages and had no intention of enlightening them. The first enlightenment of the Slavs came from the West. The preaching of Cyril and Methodius was carried out in opposition to Rome. This sermon was unconventional for Byzantium. Their activities (especially in Moravia) displeased Rome. After several years of disputes with Rome, Cyril was consecrated Bishop of Panon in Rome and later became Bishop of Moravia. Rome accused him several times of serving without a filioque. But in 897 the pope allowed him to serve without filioque and in the Slavic language.
After the activities of Cyril and Methodius, the Slavs were faced with a choice: the Eastern rite and loyalty to Constantinople, or the Western rite and loyalty to Rome. Around 970, the Slavic countries made this choice. Initially, it was simply about a ritual, and then it resulted in a struggle for belonging to Catholicism or Orthodoxy.
The Serbs were baptized around 643, and finally in 867 in the city of Dubrovnik.
Croats - in 640 in the city of Split, and in 877 switched to Latin worship.
Bulgarians - in 864.
Some Slavs chose the Western form, some - the Eastern.
The Bulgarians were baptized under Prince Boris, and in 869 the Eastern form was established among the Bulgarians. Monasteries are beginning to develop in Bulgaria. The main center was Veliko Tarnovo (the monastery of St. John of Rila).
Franks. They had the greatest influence on Rome. The ancient territories were called Gaul and were inhabited by Celts. Christianity penetrated here already in the apostolic age. There was information about the stay of the Apostle Paul on the Mediterranean coast of the future France. But the main preacher is considered to be Dionysius the Areopagite (Abbey of Saint-Denis). Many believe that Dionysius lived later. However, there is a fact of Christianity in Roman settlements in Gaul. They themselves persisted in accepting Christianity. At the end of the 2nd century, Irenaeus of Lyon was going to educate the Gauls and learned the Celtic language. In the 3rd century, thanks to the preaching of Saturninus of Toulouse, many Gauls converted to Christianity.
In the 5th century, the Franks and Burgundians, Germanic tribes, entered the territory of Gaul. The Burgundians were Arians. The catechization of the Franks began. Herman of Paris (Saint-Germain), holy martyr Genevieve (Genevieve), Martin of Tours (Saint-Martin). Martin preached not only to the Franks, but also to the Burgundians, Alemanni and Swabians, together with Boniface. Martin was different good education. In 496, the Frankish leader Clovis was baptized in Reims. The date of baptism means a complete change in the life of the people. The capital was moved from Reims to the Latin place (lutecia), where Paris was later founded. By this he showed that the French are a Christian people and are drawn to the enlightenment that Rome provides.
In the 8th century, the Franks were a powerful kingdom. And it was the Franks who extended a helping hand to Rome. Rome gives faith, enlightenment, and the Franks give protection to Rome (in particular from the Lombards). The Frankish king Pepin the Short in 752 saved Rome from the invasion of the Lombards, gave Rome the papal region, and involved the Church in feudal relations. Since Byzantium is dominated by iconoclast emperors, Rome turns to the Franks.
At the end of the 8th century, there was a moral alliance between Rome and the Franks under King Charlemagne (770 - 813), which helps Rome in uniting the peoples of Europe around Rome. To do this, he enters into alliances with Christian kings and fights with the pagans and the remaining Arians. In this way he recreates the Western Roman Empire. In 800 he received the crown of emperor in Rome. But Charles did not achieve union with Byzantium. He proposed marriage to Empress Irene, and then proposed marriage to his daughter to Irene's son. These proposals went unheeded, and Charles stopped communicating with Byzantium, which looked at Charles as a barbarian. Until the death of Charlemagne, the West did not accept the decisions of the VII Ecumenical Council. Under Charles, the construction of the Western system took place. For the title of emperor, the pope received even more land (i.e., he became even more drawn into feudal relations). Karl interprets the union of Church and state as a union of soul and body. He receives the right to protect and elect the pope. In 843, Charlemagne's empire broke up into separate kingdoms, but the title of emperor was retained and lasted until 1918. The Franks greatly helped Rome in creating republica christiana.
